“A Cloud Coming Down Over Our Head”

Erin Harper: 12 Years That Shook the World tells stories from Holocaust history that may not be suitable for everyone.  [Theme music] Previously, on 12 Years That Shook the World: It’s 1938. In Poland, in the Jewish shtetl of Eyshishok, life is bustling for Miriam, Zvi and Leon; Shabbos, Synagogue, Market Day, and Miriam’s parties. Miriam Kabacznik: It was a happy little town.

Erin Harper: Then, news arrives from Germany: Nazis are attacking Jewish people in their homes, and setting synagogues on fire. Zvi doesn’t feel immediately threatened, because that’s hundreds of miles away, and he can’t imagine that would happen here in Eyshishok. Zvi Michaeli: And the life was going on very normal.

Erin Harper: But a year later, in September of 1939, Nazi Germany invades Poland, starting WWII. Soon thousands of Jewish refugees flee eastward, and pass through Eyshishok — which is now occupied by the Soviet Union. One refugee staying in Leon’s home, tells him stories of the Nazis’ hatred of Jews, and the Nazis’ violence. Leon Kahn: He was beaten up by the Nazis. Erin Harper: The refugees plead with Jews in Eyshishok to escape while they still can, and get as far from the Nazis as possible. But most Jews can’t imagine leaving the shtetl. Miriam Kabacznik: Where will you go? We have our home. We have everything … We have our families here. Where will we go?

Erin Harper: From the US Holocaust Memorial Museum, I’m Erin Harper. This is 12 Years That Shook the World. Episode two: “A Cloud Coming Down Over Our Head”  [Fast paced piano music] It’s now June, 1941. It’s been almost two years since Nazi Germany invaded Poland and started WWII. And in that time, the Soviet Union took over Eyshishok, briefly. Then, the Lithuanian government came in for months. And now, the Soviets are in charge again — and Eyshishok has changed.  Miriam hates it. She’s now 23. She’s afraid of the Soviets because they’re communists, and they send business owners away — business owners much like her family. So Miriam lays low, and follows their rules. She gets by okay.  Zvi is now 16 years old. The Soviets prohibit some religious activities, but Zvi and his father can still go to synagogue. And they do.  Leon is also 16. He’s in school, in a city near Eyshishok— pursuing his dream to become an engineer. And he’s about to come home to Eyshishok for the summer break, with hopes of playing soccer, fishing, and swimming. But Leon’s idea for a relaxing summer is not going to go the way he had in mind. Because the Nazis have other plans.  [Engines rumble; music shifts to slow and fearful] Military planes swoop over the market square.  In her house, Miriam hears trucks roaring by. She bursts outside and waves down one of the drivers. Miriam Kabacznik: We went to ask them, “What is going on here?” And they say, “You don't know? The Germans declared war.” Erin Harper: Here’s historian, Dr. Lindsay MacNeill. Dr. Lindsay MacNeill: On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union. Within a matter of days, German troops had arrived in Eyshishok. 

Erin Harper: An endless trail of German Army tanks and trucks plow through town.  [Vehicle engines rumble] Then, a fleet of soldiers perched on black motorcycles rumble across the cobblestone, right into the market square. They park, and hop off.  [Engine halt, a vehicle door opens]  Zvi watches out the window, terrified. And for the Jewish people of Eyshishok, there’s a sudden sense of dread. A storm settling in. Zvi Michaeli: And you feel, with them, like a cloud coming down over our head. 

Erin Harper: From his home nearby, Leon peeks through the shutters, and looks out on the market square.  [Marching and men yelling] It’s crawling with Germans. Some soldiers start walking towards Leon’s house.  Here’s historian, Dr. Edna Friedberg.  Dr. Edna Friedberg: Leon's family is really very scared and locks their doors.  [A door closes] They have heard about German brutality towards Jews and they are, totally understandably, terrified that this has come to their town.  Leon Kahn: We were standing there and praying and hoping that this isn't true. That they are not going to come in.  [Grasses swish and crunch] Erin Harper: Leon watches a few soldiers walk past his front door, and head to his mother’s garden out back. They rummage through the vegetables, and help themselves to some carrots. Meanwhile, Miriam and her brother are also watching from their home.  Miriam Kabacznik: And a German came down to me, and I had my watch on … And he looks at me and he says, he wants the watch. So I didn’t want to give him. So my brother says, “Take off the watch and give it to him right away.” So I said, “Why? Here, I'm standing in my house. I have to give him my watch?” And he said, “If you don't take it off, I’ll tear it off. Give it to him.” I took off and I gave it to him. Erin Harper: The Germans walk away. Miriam’s brother turns to her and says: Miriam Kabacznik: “Don't you know what it is? He can shoot you in a minute. You'll be dead … And don’t you be stubborn.” Erin Harper: Across the market square, a few Germans move on to Zvi’s house. His mother opens the door.  [A door opens] The soldiers ask for a drink of water. And Zvi’s mother invites them inside. She offers them food and beer. Zvi stands back, watching the Germans. Zvi Michaeli: They sit down at the table, took out food, and they played cards. [Cards slide on a table, liquids pour into a glass] Erin Harper: Here’s historian, Dr. J. Luke Ryder. Dr. J. Luke Ryder: He watches them play cards and drink beer. And there's this feeling, I think his father and mother share, that, well, if they're accepting what we're offering, maybe we're not in terrible danger. Maybe there's hope for some kind of manageable existence here. But then there's this rising anxiety that comes with it.  Erin Harper: And across the shtetl, no one knows what to think. Miriam Kabacznik: We didn't sleep that night. We were standing and talking, what will it be? What will they do? What is going on? We did not know what to expect.  [Somber music] Erin Harper: Over the next few weeks, the German Army soldiers largely leave Jewish people alone. Then, the soldiers pack up to leave. And just as soon as they head out, a smaller group of Germans arrives.  [Trucks drive by] And these Germans are different — Leon thinks they look older. They’re here to set up a new civilian administration, basically to govern the town, make rules, and enforce orders. They start nosing around.  [Knocking, a door opens] They eye the Kabacznik’s house — Miriam’s home. They walk in, look around, and begin setting up shop. Dr. Lindsay MacNeill: German occupiers move into the Kabacznik home. It's one of the largest, if not the largest, home in Eyshishok. So it becomes basically headquarters for German officials.  Erin Harper: They even put a sign on the front door of Miriam’s house saying as much: Headquarters. Miriam Kabacznik: There’s nothing we could do and nothing we could say. Erin Harper: Leon and his family keep their doors locked for weeks. Leon hides in his bedroom, and reads his comic books, over and over. 

[Pages turn] Stories that help him escape to another world where he’s free and strong. Eventually Leon's mother convinces him to come out of his room. She says it’s time that they all accept the reality no matter how dark it might get. But within days, it becomes clear these Germans have plans.  They start posting orders on a wall in the market square — restrictions for Jews. [A hammer on a nail; Pensive Music] Dr. Lindsay MacNeill: German authorities in Eyshishok immediately start targeting Jews. They enact a number of anti-Jewish restrictions. Jews are required to wear a yellow Star of David badge. They are not allowed to walk on the sidewalk. Erin Harper: Zvi pins a yellow star on his clothing. He personally doesn’t mind wearing it. He’s proud to be Jewish. But for Zvi, not being allowed to walk on the sidewalks is a different story. The Nazis see Jews as less-than human, and the Nazis are forcing Jews to walk in the street, where there’s mud, and animal droppings.  [Wet footsteps; Engines drive by; Young children chatter] Zvi Michaeli: That a Jew shouldn’t — is not allowed to go on the sidewalk? That kills me. Erin Harper: And as he walks in the street, Zvi is taunted by his own non-Jewish neighbors. Kids he used to play with. Zvi Michaeli: It was so embarrassing.  … Neighbors.  [Children laughing] You grow up with them… They’re going on the sidewalk and look in your eyes and they’re laughing from you. But you see each other 24 hours a day playing soccer together. … They coming with such a proud of themself. They are over us. They are human, we are not human. That, I couldn't take it. Erin Harper: His father Mane says:  Zvi Michaeli: Keep in mind, you are a proud Jew until now. Don’t give up.  Erin Harper: Zvi’s father explains that Jews have faced persecution and struggle for many generations in the past, and that they’ll get through this too. [Hopeful melodic music] Dr. J. Luke Ryder: His father is rallying the family together on the Sabbath, focusing their prayers on hope for the week ahead. And I think it's another situation in which the family's rituals and rhythms and their kind of groundedness with one another gives them the strength to move forward in this really trying situation that they're in. [Music quickens] Erin Harper: Day after day, after day, the Germans post new orders on the wall in the market square, targeting Jews. And it’s not only the Germans who are targeting Jews. Leon hears that these newly-arrived Germans — this civilian administration — have appointed a Lithuanian police officer to enforce their new orders in Eyshishok.  Dr. Lindsay MacNeill: This civilian administration was run at the top by the Germans, but also involved a lot of Lithuanians as well. Everywhere the German forces occupied, and where Nazi Germany went, they relied on existing infrastructure to help them administer territory. What they're doing is they're using existing bureaucracies and especially police forces, to help them maintain order and security in occupied territories. Erin Harper: So in Eyshishok, the Germans create a police force made up of Lithuanians. Leon hears that one of the policemen had caught Leon’s cousin. His cousin had been walking on a sidewalk in town— which the Germans prohibited. The policeman threw him on the ground, then beat and severely wounded him. Leon doesn’t know who he can trust. So he starts to stay off the streets entirely. He only walks through the gardens behind houses when he wants to see friends. He keeps quiet. Hoping things don’t get worse. [A door rattles] Meanwhile, Zvi thinks even his home doesn’t feel safe. One day a tall German official approaches Zvi’s door looking for his older sister, Judith. Judith is a registered member of the Communist Party. And the Nazis also hate communists. They see her as an enemy, and in many cases, Germans shoot Communist Party members on sight. Luckily, Judith is not home. She’s been hiding in a nearby town. Dr. J. Luke Ryder: The German officials in Eyshishok are furiously looking for any locals who are suspected of being communists. Zvi’s family is aware of this extreme danger to her. So when the German forces turn up at the family home and start asking, “Where is Judith?” Zvi’s mother says, “Well, she hasn't lived here for years.” And the officer responds immediately by striking her in the stomach and she falls over onto the ground.  Erin Harper: It takes Zvi’s mother days to recover. But at least for the moment, Judith remains safe, in hiding.   Back on the market square, Miriam’s house is packed with Germans — stomping around in their black shiny boots.  [Boots on a wood floor; A knife on a cutting board] She has to slice up vegetables for them, and cook meals for them. The Germans eat at the family’s dinner table. They sit in the same rooms where Miriam hosted her parties. Her 12 girlfriends, the dancing, the music — all that warmth in her house with her Jewish community— it’s now so far away. Miriam always has her prayer book nearby. And at night when she’s feeling nervous, or disturbed by the Germans, she picks it up, and prays. [Hebrew prayer] Meanwhile, in town the Germans are hounding Jewish men. This time they call for a group of 20 Jewish men to report for work. So Leon, even though he’s just 16, he volunteers. He figures it’s some kind of manual labor. He says he’s curious. The next morning, the Germans march Leon and the other men to a small village outside of Eyshishok. But the job is not at all what Leon expects. Here’s historian, Dr. Edna Friedberg. Dr. Edna Friedberg: They go to outhouses. He and another young man were forced to jump down into the pit. They are forced to dig excrement and literally shovel the filth from one hole to another hole.   [Shovels in wet dirt] If an outhouse’s pit got full, you would just cover it up with dirt and dig another hole. So this was not needed. It was done to humiliate and abuse Leon and this other man.  Erin Harper: Staring at Leon covered in filth, the Germans howl with laughter.  [Men laugh] Soon, a group of Lithuanian police officers pass by. They stop and want to know what's so funny. When they see Leon, the Lithuanians join in, laughing. Dr. Edna Friedberg: Afterwards, when they were finished and they're covered with filth, with human waste, they were marched back towards Eyshishok and the Germans then beat them with sticks on their buttocks until they bled. [Footsteps running] Erin Harper: Leon runs home. His mother is shocked to see him covered in filth and blood.  [Water dripping, then running] She immediately heats up water for a bath, and burns his clothes in the fire. Leon tells her what the Germans did to him. After a while of soaking in the bath, Leon calms down.  Leon Kahn: I was not upset with it. I was hysterical. I started laughing, and I was laughing and my mom thought I went crazy. And basically, what I was laughing at is, “To hell with you. You're not going to ruin my life by throwing me in an outhouse. I will survive you. If that's the only thing that you can do to me, that's the worst thing you can do to me, I will survive you.” Dr. Edna Friedberg: His father said, our beliefs are much stronger than their crudeness and rudeness, and so shows a certain kind of defiance and human dignity that they refuse to be robbed of, even while everything else is crumbling around them. [Water splashes] Erin Harper: Leon begins to feel better. And eventually climbs back out of the water.  And besides all this, there’s another order from the Germans.  [A hammer on a nail] Jewish people in Eyshishok are not permitted to leave town. If they’re caught trying to leave, they’ll be shot. So, Jews in Eyshishok are trapped— cut off from the outside world.  It’s now late September, 1941. Three months. It’s been three months since Germans arrived in Eyshishok. And the town has been flipped upside down. In many ways, life in the shtetl has become unrecognizable. Leon: beaten and humiliated. Zvi’s mother: assaulted by the Germans. Miriam’s home: invaded. The Germans and the Lithuanian police. The attacks, the violence.  [Wind rustles] And now, Jewish people in Eyshishok start hearing rumors— terrifying rumors of Jews being murdered— massacres of entire Jewish communities in nearby towns. And warnings that this terror is heading towards Eyshishok. [Forboding music] Dr. Lindsay MacNeill: Miriam remembers a Polish family friend coming and warning them specifically about a massacre that had occurred in the town of Aran, which was about twenty miles west of Eyshishok.  Erin Harper: This family friend is a Polish Catholic farmer named Korkuć. Miriam Kabacznik: He said, “Do you know that they killed all the Jews in Aran?” My mother said, “No. What do you mean they killed all the Jews in Aran?” Erin Harper: Korkuć also tells Miriam, if anything were to happen, she should run to him, and he’ll hide her. Miriam Kabacznik: And I look at him and I couldn't understand, what is he talking?  Dr. Lindsay MacNeill: Even as the Jewish community learned these stories, they couldn't make sense of them. They couldn't believe that this had happened in Aran. They couldn't believe that this was potentially going to happen in Eyshishok.  Erin Harper: Days go by, and the rumors don’t stop. Stories about this town, and that town. In shtetl after shtetl, Jewish people are being shot. Something about a ravine. About ditches dug in the ground. And even so, how could Jews of Eyshishok know whether or not these stories are true? The Germans took their radios. Newspapers are censored. And Jews can’t leave Eyshishok. Zvi Michaeli: We were so cut off from the other world … from the other cities. Erin Harper: Many Jewish people in Eyshishok think some of these local farmers — they don’t like Jews and are just trying to scare Jewish people. They’re making it up. Even during a war up until this point, no one in Eyshishok has ever heard of such a thing: killing a whole Jewish community? It doesn’t make any sense. Even the refugees who came through town fleeing the Nazis didn’t tell stories like that. Miriam Kabacznik: It's impossible. How can they kill everybody? It's impossible. Erin Harper: But, the head Rabbi of Eyshishok, Rabbi Szymen Rozowski: he believes the rumors.  Dr. Edna Friedberg: Rabbi Rozowski took them very seriously. He called a meeting of his community and encouraged them to take up arms in self-defense — really pushed that they should go out and buy whatever weapons they could in order to be prepared to defend themselves should such horrors come to Eyshishok. But there was a lot of disagreement about the best course of action and hesitancy, and again a feeling of not wanting it to be true. Erin Harper: Also, weapons are difficult to get. And even if Jewish people in Eyshishok did manage to obtain a small number of weapons, would that be any match for armed German soldiers? At this meeting, very few Jews agree with Rabbi Rozowski. They stand, divided. So with no unified plan for self-defense, everyone goes home, including Miriam. She returns home, and puts the rumors out of her mind.  [Lighter, uplifting music] And actually, Zvi, Miriam and Leon have something to look forward to: It’s September — and soon it will be one of the holiest times in the Jewish calendar. It’s the Jewish New Year: Rosh Hashanah. A time of spiritual introspection, celebration, song, prayer.  For the Jewish people of Eyshishok, perhaps it will offer a brief moment of joy amidst the fear, the chaos, and the violence. Zvi, Miriam and Leon’s families, will soon fill their tables with bread, apples and honey, just as they have for generations. [Forboding music] But what they don’t know is that the rumors are true. The Nazi regime has sent special units into German-occupied eastern Europe. The units are called Einsatzgruppen — and here, most function as killing squads. These Nazi killing squad members are devoted to Nazi ideas and deeply driven by their hatred of Jews. Now their assignment is to destroy the Nazis supposed enemies, including Jews. All Jews. These killing squads often enlist local collaborators. And right now, one of these Nazi killing squads is headed towards Eyshishok.  [Theme music] Coming up on 12 Years That Shook the World.  Dr. J. Luke Ryder: After several hours, they're exhausted, they're hungry, they're desperate, and they're very, very afraid. Leon Kahn: I didn't know what to do. I was jumping out of my skin completely.  Zvi Michaeli: I saw my father get old and gray in this moment for 10 years.  Dr. J. Luke Ryder: In Zvi's mind, in his memory he is suddenly standing in a line at the edge of a pit. From the US Holocaust Memorial Museum, I’m Erin Harper. Joining me were historians at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Dr. Edna Friedberg, Dr. Lindsay MacNeill, and Dr. J. Luke Ryder.  Our show is written and produced by me. Our story is researched by Meredith Gui, with additional research by Dr. Lindsay MacNeill, as well as Clare Cronin and historian, Dr. William Meinecke. We offer a special thank you to Dr. Simon Goldberg, and Hana G. Green. This story is informed by the work of historian, Dr. Yaffa Eliach. Some oral history interviews are from the US Holocaust Memorial Museum’s collection, as a gift from Jeff Bieber, including: Miriam Kabacznik Shulman from 1997, Leon Kahn from 1998, and Zvi Michaelowsky from 1997, and 1999. An interview with Miriam Kabacznik Shulman from 1996 is a gift from Randy M. Goldman. You can watch these testimonies online in the Museum’s collection. Other Interviews of Miriam [Kabacznik] Shulman from 1998, Leon Kahn from 1996, and Zvi Michaeli from 1996 are from the archive of the USC Shoah Foundation — The Institute for Visual History and Education. For more information, visit sfi.usc.edu. Leon Kahn’s interview from 1982 is from the Montreal Holocaust Museum. For a complete bibliography for our story, and for more resources, look for the link in the episode show notes or visit USHMM.org/12YearsPodcast. This podcast is funded in part by support from the Crown Family Philanthropies, the Joyce and Irving Goldman Family Foundation, Walmart Foundation, and from the Judd, Randi, Stephen & Barry Malkin Families. Music and Sound Design by SALT Audio. Lead Editor and sound effects by Aaron Kennedy. Listeners, we need your help to make 12 Years That Shook the World even better. We want to hear from you: what resonates, what moves you, and what you think of our latest season? Look for the survey link in the show notes or send an email to podcast@ushmm.org. If you like our show, follow us on your favorite podcast app and share our podcast with others. Thank you for listening.